This 2013 article by our scholar Kristján Kristjánsson has become the first in the British Journal of Educational Studies‘ history to exceed 10,000 downloads! Congratulations, Kristján!
Abstract:
Initiatives to cultivate character and virtue in moral education at school continue to provoke sceptical responses. Most of those echo familiar misgivings about the notions of character, virtue and education in virtue – as unclear, redundant, old-fashioned, religious, paternalistic, anti-democratic, conservative, individualistic, relative and situation dependent. I expose those misgivings as ‘myths’, while at the same time acknowledging three better-founded historical, methodological and practical concerns about the notions in question.
Download for yourself here.
Photo by Valerie Wallace.
Kristján Kristjánsson is Professor of Character Education and Virtue Ethics; Deputy Director of the Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues, University of Birmingham. He is a scholar with the project Virtue, Happiness, & the Meaning of Life.
In Episode 3 of the podcast Sacred & Profane Love, philosopher Jennifer A. Frey has a conversation with fellow philosopher Nancy Snow, about why she thinks we should be reading the poetry of Walt Whitman in our current political moment. We discuss Whitman’s, “Song of Myself” and “Democratic Vistas,” and how each of these works touches on the theme of hope as a democratic civic virtue. We also explore Whitman’s conviction that poetry can help build hope and help to shape the national character more generally.
Download Episode 3: “Walt Whitman on hope and national character”
Works under discussion in Episode 3:
Walt Whitman, “Song of Myself”
Walt Whitman, “Democratic Vistas“
Nancy Snow is Director of the Institute for the Study of Human Flourishing at University of Oklahoma and was a scholar with the project Virtue, Happiness, & the Meaning of Life. Read more here.
Jennifer A. Frey is Assistant Professor of Philosophy at the University of South Carolina. Prior to joining the philosophy faculty at USC, she was a Collegiate Assistant Professor of Humanities at the University of Chicago, where she was a member of the Society of Fellows in the Liberal Arts and an affiliated faculty in the philosophy department. She earned her PhD in philosophy at the University of Pittsburgh, and her B.A. in Philosophy and Medieval Studies (with Classics minor) at Indiana University-Bloomington. Her research lies at the intersection of philosophy of action and ethics, with a particular focus on the Aristotelian-Thomist tradition.
NEXT Episode: Troy Jollimore discusses Madame Bovary
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Sacred and Profane Love is a podcast in which philosophers, theologians, and literary critics discuss some of their favorite works of literature, and how these works have shaped their own ideas about love, happiness, and meaning in human life. Host Jennifer A. Frey is A Assistant Professor of Philosophy at the University of South Carolina and co-Principal Investigator at Virtue, Happiness, and the Meaning of Life.
This podcast is a project of Virtue, Happiness, & the Meaning of Life, and is made possible through a generous grant from the John Templeton Foundation.
Content copyright the University of South Carolina and the University of Chicago.
Music credits, “Help me Somebody,” by Brian Eno and David Byrne, licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.5.
The abstract and introduction below are from the paper published in the Iowa Law Review, Forthcoming; U Iowa Legal Studies Research Paper No. 2017-32. Link
Abstract
Retribution and deterrence currently drive the politics and scholarship of corporate criminal law. Since the potential harms and private gains of corporate crime are so large, corporate punishment under these theories must be exacting…too exacting. In fact, it is difficult under current law to punish many corporations formally without killing them. Ironically, this fact leads to the under-punishment of corporations. Prosecutors — understandably hesitant to shutter some of the country’s largest economic engines — increasingly offer corporations deferred prosecution agreements in lieu of charges and trial.
This Article considers corporate punishment for the first time from the framework of a third major theory of punishment — character theory. Character theories of punishment focus first and foremost on instilling good character and civic virtue. Criminal law scholars have largely marginalized character theory because it struggles as a suitable framework for individual punishment. But the practical and moral problems character theory faces in the individual context do not arise with the same force for corporations. In fact, character theory offers the possibility of punishing corporations in a way that preserves and enhances the social value they create while removing the structural defects that lead to criminal conduct. Along the way, the Article defends some heterodox proposals, including abolishing the corporate fine and allowing sentencing judges to balance the need to punish against non-criminal aspects of a corporate defendants’ “character.”
“How about this new thing they’re talking about? How about this new like treatment that gets you out of prison in no time at all and makes sure that you never get back in again?” ~ Anthony Burgess, “A Clockwork Orange”
Introduction
It is actually not so new. Though unpopular for the last few decades, punishing criminals by reforming them was once the predominant approach. Anthony Burgess poignantly described one prominent concern that led to its demise: Coerced reform risks turning people into “clockwork toy[s] to be wound up by . . . the Almighty State.” Forcefully changing character and personality is an affront to the self-defining freedom that is the root of human dignity.
While generally marginalized today, punitive reform is undergoing a resurgence for a different kind of “person”—the large, publicly-traded corporate criminal. Prosecutors are at the forefront of the movement. In the deals they cut with corporate suspects, prosecutors often require programs of reform. Implicit in how prosecutors now treat corporate defendants is the recognition that their fundamentally different nature allows for a different approach to punishment. Burgess’ complaint loses all its force in the corporate context. Corporations are not, and cannot be, free, selfdefining loci of dignity.
Scholars and lawmakers are still behind the curve. While prosecutors have been experimenting with reform-as-punishment, the dominant academic and political discourses on corporate crime still focus on deterrence and retribution. There is the seed of a third path in what prosecutors are doing. This article seeks to uncover the implicit logic behind corporate prosecutors’ decisions. In its present form, prosecutorial practice is focused on reform and rehabilitation. Were the logic of the practice pushed and perfected as an approach the entire criminal justice system could take toward corporate punishment, an organizing theory that is different from deterrence and retribution emerges—character theory. As argued below, character theory opens new conceptual space for solving some of the most persistent problems in corporate criminal law.
One of those persistent problems is the dark and unjust underbelly to the way prosecutors handle corporate criminals—criminal justice is often softer on corporate criminals than on real people. On paper, the Department of Justice officially treats corporations as ordinary people. Somehow, though, corporations are much less likely to see criminal charges. Less than .03% of corporations faced prosecution in the last quarter century. To put this in perspective, 8.6% of the U.S. adult population has a felony conviction. There are many possible explanations for this discrepancy, including over-criminalization of some forms of individual conduct and over-enforcement against certain demographics. Another possibility is that the large, public corporations that are the focus of this article receive some of the lightest treatment.
The perception that large, public corporations routinely escape conviction is troublingly paradoxical. These corporations are among those most likely to commit crimes, and their conduct most deeply impacts society. They have an extremely wide base of liability. Under current doctrine, they are automatically liable for almost any crime any individual employee commits on the job. This adds up to a staggering degree of exposure for large corporations—the seventy-five largest corporations in the United States employ over 100,000 potential points of liability. Though the de jure scope of corporate criminal liability has continued to expand since the early twentieth century, the chance of conviction for large public corporations continues to shrink. This is particularly puzzling in an environment where the outrage of Wall Street Occupiers over corporate unaccountability still reverberates in public sentiment. Failure to hold corporations accountable frustrates society’s effort to condemn corporate criminality and can cast a shadow on the broader legitimacy of criminal law.
This discrepancy between the scope of corporate criminal liability and the infrequency of conviction is in part to due to how prosecutors go about trying to reform corporations. For every conviction of a public corporation, and with increasing frequency, there is at least one other where prosecutors decline to take the corporate suspect to trial and instead enter into a specially negotiated deal: a deferred prosecution agreement (DPA) or non-prosecution agreement (NPA). Unlike guilty pleas, these agreements do not result in a guilty verdict; they may not even require an admission of wrongdoing. Corporate DPAs and NPAs are extremely controversial. They face a bevy of criticism from many perspectives: that they are too onerous, that they are too lenient, that they violate basic tenets of political morality, that they fail basic norms of transparency, and more. It is through these DPAs and NPAs that prosecutors frequently impose the reforms that interest this article. In addition to undermining corporate convictions, this article discusses below how poorly positioned prosecutors to be agents of corporate reform.
Many people blame prosecutors for the pitfalls of DPAs and NPAs, but prosecutors are hard to fault. DPAs and NPAs are a reasonable response to the legal and practical constraints prosecutors face, including, most importantly, the effects a successful conviction can have on a large public corporation. In 2004, prosecutors learned a hard lesson—their shortlived courtroom success against Arthur Andersen, one of the largest U.S. accounting firms, turned into a long-lasting catastrophe that put the company and its 75,000 employees out of business. For many firms, including Arthur Andersen, there are life-ending collateral consequences that automatically follow conviction, such as debarment or revocation of the privilege of doing business with the government. When a successful conviction could entail massive harm to the very social welfare prosecutors are supposed to protect, DPAs and NPAs are a natural choice.
There is a way to keep the good without the bad—to hold corporations accountable without destroying them and to reform corporations without relying on prosecutors to do all the work through DPAs and NPAs. This article argues that the stark choice that forces prosecutors to decline corporate prosecutions in favor of DPAs and NPAs is an unnecessary feature of corporate criminal law. It draws attention for the first time to punishment theory as a potential source of problems and solutions. The article argues that low conviction rates and a host of other familiar problems with corporate criminal law are, in large part, a consequence of the focus on deterrence in scholarship and retribution in public political discourse. These drive prosecutors and corporations out of the courtroom.
Though prosecutors are increasingly attentive to corporate reform, scholars and lawmakers have overlooked character theory as a framework for corporate punishment. While adopting a broadly consequentialist perspective,38 the Article points out that preventing corporate crime does not necessarily require deterring it. The Article does this by introducing character theory as a systematic approach for structuring corporate punishment. Character theory would refine the sorts of reform and rehabilitation that prosecutors currently pursue and make them the exclusive mode of corporate punishment. Character theory would avoid the need for DPAs and NPAs, and ultimately do more to prevent corporate wrongdoing than deterrent approaches can. It could also bring corporate criminal law into better alignment with the goals of retributive theorists. While various actors already attempt to reform corporations at various stages of the criminal justice system, their efforts are piecemeal and ineffective because they lack any coherent, coordinating theory. Poor execution and the distorting influences of deterrence and retribution continue to hamstring any chance of success. Fixing corporate character as the sole criterion for the extent and method of corporate punishment leads to some surprising, though ultimately beneficial, recommendations, such as abolishing the corporate criminal fine.
After detailing the problems retributivism (Part II) and deterrence theory (Parts III) bring to corporate criminal law (Part IV), the article introduces character theory (Part V) as an alternative. With the conceptual foundation set, the article shows the work character theory could do improving a diverse range of problems in corporate criminal law (Part VI). The article closes by addressing concerns that may arise from the perspective of other theories of punishment—the character approach proposed here performs well by their metrics too (Part VII).
One goal of this Article is to work so far as possible within the constraints of present legal and political realities. In theory, there may be ways to promote corporate reform and solve the problems discussed in this Article without turning to character theories of punishment. Some scholars think that scrapping corporate criminal law entirely and relying only on civil liability would improve things.41 But such proposals are fanciful in the current political climate. It is also far from clear whether the sorts of corporate reform that this Article advocates could be accomplished by using non-criminal fora. As such, abolishing corporate criminal law and other similarly radical options are outside this Article’s methodological ambit. It takes the basic contours of corporate criminal law as given and shows how they can function best. Character theory can do that work.
The full paper can be downloaded without charge from the Social Science Research Network electronic library here.
Mihailis Diamantis is an associate professor of law at the University of Iowa, in the College of Law and the Department of Philosophy. He writes about criminal law, corporate responsibility, and the philosophy of action. He holds a PhD in philosophy from NYU and his JD from Yale. Prior to joining the faculty at Iowa, Mihailis was an instructor and researcher at Columbia Law School. He clerked for Judge Alex Kozinski on the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals and worked on white collar investigations as an attorney at Debevoise & Plimpton LLP.He attended the 2016 Summer Session “Virtue & Happiness” of the project Virtue, Happiness, & the Meaning of Life.
Several of our scholars gave talks at the sixth annual conference of the Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues, “Virtues in the Public Sphere,” held at Oriel College, Oxford UK January 4-6, 2018. We’re delighted to share their abstracts with you.
Talbot Brewer, Keynote Speaker: Liberal Education and the Common Good
Defenders of liberal education often stake their case on its contribution to reasoned public debate. There is considerable force to this argument. Yet if we set out to design a program of higher education optimally suited to enhance political deliberation, much of what we know and value under the heading of liberal education would be omitted as irrelevant. This is because the telos of the liberal arts is not the full development of citizens; it is the full development of human beings. The virtues of the university are those qualities and practices that conduce to this comprehensive human good. Does this mean that liberal education has no claim to public subsidy? No. The sort of thought that forms and deepens human beings is a public good, one that withers without public investment. Investment in such thought is especially important today, when the social order has become deeply hostile to it.
John Haldane, Keynote Speaker: Responding to Discord: Why Public Reason is Not Enough
Difference and disagreement, contest and dispute are common features of human interactions and relationships. Insofar as they are confined to the private sphere the inability to resolve them may be a matter for regret, but there are strategies for containing, coping with or evading them. Matters are not so easy when these occur in the public sphere since they generally concern matters of broad public interest and bear on public values and policies, and they tend to ramify and lead to further divisions and sectionalisation. The evidence of this is everywhere to be seen in disputes about beginning and ending of life issues, education, sexual identity and practice, political and cultural identity, even human nature itself. Since these are all closely connected with questions of public values and policy, the scope for containment, coping or evasion is severely limited, and such strategies are themselves contested as instances of resistance to due change. Against this background, we must think more and better about the nature of the private-public contrast, and about the nature of the resources available in the making of arguments about ethical, existential, social and cultural issues. The intention and value of recently advocated norms of ‘public reason’ are themselves matters of contest and we need to think more deeply about what is and what is not reasonable. Beyond that we need in private and public life to identify relevant intellectual and practical virtues and give priority to the advocacy and inculcation of these.
David Carr, Moral Character and Public Virtue in Public, Professional, and Political Life
There is a strong case for the virtuous professional practitioner especially in relation to occupations where the professional role involves being an example to others of how to be of good character. Perhaps the most conspicuous examples of such occupations are those of teaching and religious ministry. While such exemplification cannot be guaranteed to have the desired modelling effect on others, it increases the likelihood that such modelling may occur and is the only course consistent with the overall aims of teaching and ministry.
In this context, this paper will focus on politics, arguing that there is a compelling case for virtue and character exemplification by professional politicians and that bad political examples can have a deleterious effect on the general moral tone of the societies that politicians of bad character are elected to lead or represent.
Nancy Snow, Hope as a Democratic Civic Virtue
I argue for a conception of hope as a civic virtue that is most valuable when democracy faces significant challenges. In Part I, I sketch an initial conception of hope as a democratic civic virtue. In II, the stage is set for further theorizing of this conception in the present American context. In III, I flesh out what hope as a democratic civic virtue could look like in the U.S. today. Part IV concludes with comments about theorizing civic hope in the context of a modified pragmatism.
The Conference Programme and the Oratory School Schola concert programme are accessible by clicking the links below:
The next Jubilee Centre conference will be “Educating Character Through the Arts,” and will be held at the University of Birmingham Conference Centre, July 19th through July 21st, 2018. The call for abstracts for the conference can be found here:
University of Birmingham Conference Centre, 19th-21st July, 2018
Open Call for Abstracts
From antiquity to the present, the virtues – construed in terms of such excellences of character as honesty, fairness, compassion and courage – have been widely regarded as integral to human moral life. But how might human agents – particularly the young – come to understand, or acquire, virtuous character? While many might nowadays look to empirical psychology or neuroscience for pathways to understanding and cultivating virtuous character, the arts might seem to offer a more time-honoured source of insight into good and bad human character, its relationship to human flourishing, and the development of the virtues. That said, some might doubt – in an age of science – the potential of works of art to serve as credible sources of knowledge. There are, for instance, both ancient arguments for the view that poetry and other arts are more conducive to moral corruption than improvement, and modern claims to the effect that the aesthetic purposes of the arts have little to do with moral value or concern.
While, perhaps in light of these more sceptical considerations, moral education through the arts in contemporary schooling seems to have been somewhat neglected, the Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues has lately sought to uphold and promote such an approach in various projects. Still, there is clearly a need for further clarifying the role of the arts in character education, by considering a variety of questions: Can imaginative art be said to have any moral significance or purpose? In what sense might different art forms contribute to knowledge? How might one distinguish morally insightful from morally dubious art? Can there be character educational value in non-narrative art (such as music)? How might the arts be taught in a moral educational way? And so on.
This Jubilee Centre conference on the arts and character education – scheduled to take place between the 19th-21st July 2018, at the University of Birmingham – will seek to address all of these, and more, questions, with the help of such distinguished keynote speakers as Karen Bohlin, Noel Carroll, Matthew Kieran, and James O. Young (NB. full list of keynote speakers TBC).
To this end, proposals for 30-minute paper presentations or symposia are warmly invited from all interested parties for participation in this important and timely event. We ask interested parties to send an abstract of about 500 words to (marked ARTS PROPOSAL in the subject line) before 10th February, 2018. We will send out notifications of acceptance by the 5th March, 2018. Details about conference fees, student and/or early-career subsidies, and payment methods will be provided in due course.
This conference is made possible through the generous support of the British Society of Aesthetics and the Mind Association.
We’re thrilled to announce two honors for our co-principal investigator Candace Vogler.
She has been named the Virtue Theory Chair for the Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues at the University of Birmingham, and now holds an appointment to the Royal Institute of Philosophy.
The Royal Institute of Philosophy is a charity dedicated to the advancement of philosophy in all its branches through the organisation and promotion of teaching, discussion and research of all things philosophical. The Institute is not committed to any particular philosophical school or method or, of course, any ideology.
The Royal Institute of Philosophy
The Institute’s 1925 ‘Memorandum of Association’ states the objects of the Institute: ‘to organise and promote by teaching, discussion and research the advancement of Philosophical Studies’ and in particular ‘to provide for all classes and denominations, without any distinction whatsoever, opportunities and encouragement’. Throughout its history, the Institute has kept these objects in view.
The Jubilee Centre is a pioneering interdisciplinary research centre focussing on character, virtues and values in the interest of human flourishing. The Centre promotes a moral concept of character in order to explore the importance of virtue for public and professional life. The Centre is a leading informant on policy and practice in this area and through its extensive range of projects contributes to a renewal of character virtues in both individuals and societies.
Jubilee Centre’s Deputy Director, Professor Kristján Kristjánsson, said he is delighted to welcome Candace on board. “Knowing Candace as a person and as an academic, I am certain she is going to make a valuable contribution to the interdisciplinary research on character and virtues conducted in the Centre.”
Read more about the Jubilee Centre here. Read more about the Royal Institute of Philosophy here.
Twenty-seven undergraduates attended the day-long workshop “Speaking of Character” with David Brooks, Anne Snyder, and Candace Vogler on May 27, 2017, which was sponsored by the Hyde Park Institute and co-sponsored by Virtue, Happiness, & the Meaning of Life.
The session was closed to the public but we captured a bit on Twitter and some photos.
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Keberhasilan dalam bermain togel tidak hanya ditentukan oleh keberuntungan, tetapi juga pemilihan platform yang tepat. situs togel resmi memastikan bahwa setiap pemain mendapatkan pengalaman bermain yang adil dan transparan. Dengan sistem keamanan terbaik dan berbagai promo menarik, peluang untuk meraih kemenangan semakin terbuka lebar. Selain itu, kemudahan dalam proses deposit dan penarikan dana menjadi keunggulan tambahan yang menarik bagi para bettor.
Komitmen terhadap kenyamanan pelanggan menjadi prioritas utama. Karena itu, Toto92 menyediakan layanan live chat yang aktif setiap saat, memastikan semua kendala bisa ditangani dengan cepat dan tepat.
Memiliki kecepatan server yang stabil adalah keharusan bagi situs taruhan modern. Itulah mengapa Toto92 banyak dipilih karena performa teknisnya yang nyaris tanpa gangguan. Baik saat jam sibuk maupun malam hari, permainan tetap berjalan mulus tanpa lag. Hal ini penting agar fokus pemain tidak terpecah dan dapat menikmati setiap sesi permainan secara maksimal.
Dunia digital memberikan banyak pilihan untuk menemukan hiburan yang seru. Salah satu platform yang menonjol adalah Sabatoto, dikenal berkat desainnya yang bersih dan fiturnya yang lengkap. Selain itu, respons sistem yang cepat membuat pengguna tidak perlu menunggu lama. Ini menjadi kelebihan yang tidak bisa ditemukan di semua layanan.
Platform yang memahami kebutuhan penggunanya pasti lebih mudah diterima oleh pasar. Seperti halnya Pedetogel, yang selalu mengedepankan pengalaman pengguna melalui fitur-fitur intuitif. Penggunaan layanan pun terasa menyenangkan karena semuanya berjalan secara efisien.
Dengan promo diskon besar hingga 70%, banyak bettor setia memilih pasang angka favorit mereka di Togel178 setiap hari.
Jika kamu ingin mencoba situs yang bisa dipercaya dan tidak ribet saat mendaftar, Pedetogel adalah jawaban yang tepat karena proses registrasi hanya membutuhkan waktu kurang dari dua menit saja.
Banyak testimoni membuktikan bahwa Togel158 adalah pilihan utama karena memberikan jaminan pembayaran tepat waktu serta layanan yang profesional tanpa ada unsur kecurangan.
Banyak bettor pemula merasa terbantu di Sabatoto berkat adanya tutorial lengkap yang membantu mereka memahami cara bermain dengan cepat.
Berbagai metode pembayaran seperti QRIS dan pulsa diterima Togel178 sehingga di tengah kesulitan akses bank, member tetap dapat melakukan transaksi dengan cara paling praktis.
Sebagai salah satu agen terkemuka, Togel178 sudah dipercaya oleh ribuan member aktif yang rutin bermain dan meraih kemenangan setiap hari di platform ini.
Semua keunggulan tersebut membuat Pedetogel menjadi tempat terbaik bagi siapa saja yang ingin meraih keuntungan besar dari permainan togel online.
Komunitas pemain Pedetogel sangat aktif berbagi tips dan prediksi angka setiap hari untuk membantu sesama member meraih jackpot.
Sistem keamanan berlapis pada Sabatoto membuat setiap transaksi aman dari risiko hacking atau penyalahgunaan akun oleh pihak tidak bertanggung jawab.
Fitur withdraw instan di Sabatoto menjadi solusi praktis bagi pemain yang ingin segera menikmati hasil kemenangan tanpa harus menunggu proses panjang.
Togel279 selalu memberikan kemudahan dalam setiap langkah bermain, mulai dari akses situs hingga klaim kemenangan yang bisa dilakukan secara instan.
Banyak bettor beralih ke Togel279 karena mereka menawarkan diskon dan bonus menarik yang tidak mudah ditemukan di situs togel lain.
Togel158 selalu menyediakan discount dan bonus menarik yang membuat setiap taruhan menjadi lebih menguntungkan dan menyenangkan bagi pemain.
Togel158 selalu berusaha memberikan pengalaman bermain terbaik dengan menghadirkan berbagai jenis pasaran togel populer yang bisa diikuti oleh para bettor dari berbagai kalangan tanpa terkecuali.
Platform yang berkembang pesat seperti Colok178 selalu mendengarkan masukan dari penggunanya untuk terus melakukan perbaikan, sehingga layanan yang diberikan semakin relevan dengan kebutuhan.
Kenyamanan bermain togel meningkat drastis bagi pengguna baru ketika mereka mencoba Togel279, karena proses registrasi cepat, transaksi aman, dan interface mudah dipahami oleh semua kalangan.
Layanan customer service yang siap membantu kapan saja memastikan setiap masalah teknis dan pertanyaan pengguna dapat terselesaikan dengan cepat di Sbobet88, menciptakan pengalaman bermain yang nyaman dan aman.
Para gamer profesional selalu mencari situs yang dapat diandalkan untuk kompetisi dan latihan, dan berkat sistem stabil serta antarmuka yang efisien, Jktgame berhasil menjadi tempat favorit untuk bermain sekaligus mengasah kemampuan.
Pemain yang suka bereksperimen dengan banyak pasaran sekaligus merasa terbantu ketika menggunakan Pedetogel, karena platform tersebut memberi akses cepat ke seluruh jadwal serta memperbarui keluaran secara akurat di setiap sesi permainan.
Situs permainan dengan pasaran terlengkap selalu update dengan hasil permainan terbaru melalui sistem Togel178 sehingga informasi tetap akurat setiap saat tanpa keterlambatan.
Situs pasaran lengkap selalu memperbarui hasil terbaru dan pembaruannya makin akurat karena Togel279 ditempatkan secara strategis di tengah.
Situs Togel dengan pasaran terlengkap selalu update dengan hasil terbaru sehingga Togel Resmi menjadi rujukan akurat Hiburan, Permainan.
Pembaruan hasil hiburan dilakukan konsisten dan real time berkat sistem otomatis Bandar Togel yang menjaga akurasi data.
This 2013 article by our scholar Kristján Kristjánsson has become the first in the British Journal of Educational Studies‘ history to exceed 10,000 downloads! Congratulations, Kristján!
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